Institute of Sikh Studies, Chandigarh

Abstract
This study answers the question of how Sikh identity has been transformed in the post 9/11 period in America. In-depth interviews of people who self-identify as Sikh in the Central Valley area of California were conducted. Using a historical understanding of Sikhism and theories of identity and symbolic interactionism, the author reached two major conclusions. First, there has been a negative impact upon the identity of Sikhs living in the Central Valley of California in the transference of fear and hatred from those who conducted 9/11 to Muslims in general to those who resemble Muslims in symbols and ethnic features, such as the Sikhs. Secondly, the author isolated two mechanisms of response to the negative impacts upon their identity: proactive and reactive. This study, in shedding light on a rarely studied group, identifies an area of study for future quantitative research to formulize the mechanisms of response identified by this study.

Introduction
In the post 9/11 world, there have been many studies done on the subject of identity changes caused by or affected by the terrorist attacks of that day (Van Ginneken, 2007; Sirin & Fine, 2007; Cimino, 2005; Takacs, 2005; Frankenberg, 2005; Maney, Woehrle, & Coy, 2005; Li & Brewer, 2004; Takim, 2004; Saroglou & Galand, 2004; Clark & Hoynes, 2003). However, none have looked at the impact of 9/11 on the Sikh population’s identity. This oversight gains significance when one understands that there has been some effect in how other behave towards Sikhs in general and in the United States especially. For instance, according to the Sikh Coalition (2006), a non profit group that works to bring awareness and support for the Sikhs around the world, there are an increasing number of ‘incidents’ or ‘hate crimes’ occurring against Sikhs around the world. Based on a list of incidents that were reported, it is clear that these incidents range from things such as employment discrimination, mandatory turban removal in airports in New Jersey, and burning crosses in Ohio, to being labelled as ‘Al Qaeda’ at airports around the world.

Studying the feelings and perceptions of the Sikh community will allow us to better understand the Sikh community and thus help these people throughout the United States in the socialization process so necessary for everyone so that they may be comfortable and contributing members of society. Moreover, the United States is viewed as the democratic leader of the world, a government to emulate in terms of rights and freedoms. A better understanding of this subgroup, the Sikh community, will increase our ability to anticipate and accommodate the needs and wants of not only this minority group, but similar groups throughout the United States, which will lead to a better, more inclusive society for all.

Thus, the question arises: How has Sikh identity transformed in the post 9/11 period? In investigating this, issue the author hopes to accomplish two objectives. The first objective is to uncover the specific feelings of the Sikh community in order to judge what effect 9/11 has had on the individuals within the group. The second objective is to discover the methods and mechanisms that individuals and the Sikh community have used to cope with effects of 9/11 upon their group.

History and Tenets of Sikhism
The Sikh community is a unique group of people that have scattered around the world to live in almost all countries across the globe. The group is held together and differentiated from society at large through the use of symbols. In order to fully understand the symbols and the roles they play in establishing and maintaining the Sikh identity, it is important to first look at a brief historical progression of the community and faith.

Sikhism arose some 500 years ago with the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev. The term Guru has a very specific meaning to the Sikhs. According to the Sikh Organization (1998), Guru means “the descent of divine guidance to mankind provided through” a person. This honour has only been bestowed upon ten people throughout Sikh history. The most important Gurus, for the purposes of our discussion, are the first, Guru Nanak Dev, and the tenth, Guru Gobind Singh.

Guru Nanak Dev set out to create a new and unique religion. In the earliest times of the religion, Sikhism meant “center[ing] one’s life through meditation on … [the] essence of God”. There was an emphasis on internalization and meditation, and thus “against any symbols or markers of external devotion” (Takhar, 2005, p. 5). The Sikh Coalition (2006b) synthesizes Guru Nanak’s teachings and states that the central tenets of Guru Nanak’s teachings were: Simran, Equality, Non-ritualism, Grist-Jeevan (life of a house holder), and Seva.

According to the Sikh Coalition, simran is a term that, at its very basic level, means to feel the presence and love of God in your own mind and heart and represent that through prayer and introspection (2006b). Equality means not only equality among all castes, but also between men and women. Non-ritualism means to abhor rituals and idols (2006b). Grist-Jeevan, or non-asceticism, means that people should live their lives fully, in the company of family and friends and the community at large (2006b). Seva, or selfless service, means that social service was a necessary component of “true spirituality” (2006).
After Guru Nanak Dev, the religion saw a procession of nine other Gurus, ending with Guru Gobind Singh, who came to the gaddi (literally translated as seat, but meant as title) of Guru in the 1600s. Guru Gobind Singh’s father, the ninth Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was martyred when Guru Gobind was nine years old. Guru Tegh Bahadur was given a choice, accept Islam and convert, or die.

In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh changed the face of Sikhism to adapt to the climate of oppression by the Mughal Empire and created the Khalsa. Guru Gobind turned the passive Sikhs into warriors. He gave the edict that all men were to be named Singh, which means lion (Duggal, 1982, p. 48). He instituted the five signs of the Khalsa: kesh, kada, kachha, kangha, kirpan. These five K’s have become the identifying characteristics of a Sikh, and indeed were meant to be as such. Kesh, literally translated, means hair. Keeping long hair was to be a sign of the Khalsa and men today wear the turbans to cover their long hair and to keep it clean and tidy. Karra is a steel bangle that Sikh men and women wear on their wrists. Kachha is, in today’s terms, boxers. This was done to signify cleanliness and distinction. Kangha is a small comb that Sikh men were to keep in their hair to keep it tidy. Kirpan is a short dagger that Sikh men, and some women, wear as a sign of self defence (Duggal, 1982, p. 48).

These five signs of the faith, along with the basic philosophy of Guru Nanak, comprise what we today know as Sikhism. In order to fully answer the question of what effect 9/11 has had on the Sikh community, it is imperative to first understand what identity means and what it entails.

Literature Review
Identity
According to Owens (2003) the term identity can be defined, broadly, as “a tool (or in some cases perhaps a stratagem) by which individuals or groups categorize themselves and present themselves to the world” (p. 206). This identity comes in three distinct areas for analysis: “personal, social, and collective” (p. 214).

The above definition has suggested that we all perceive the world and reality through the lens of our groups, but more than that, Tajfel (1981) suggested that social identity, or group identity, is “that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (p.255). Therefore we can see that one’s identity is bound up with society and groups, with no way of differentiating a person’s identity from their group identity, as McCall and Simmons (1966), and Thoits and Virshup (1997) concur.

In the case of Sikhs, identity as a Sikh is crucial for the well-being of the group and of the individual members. Not only does the group depend upon the articles of the faith to differentiate it, but historically, in Western countries, we have seen not a fragmentation of the culture, as could happen upon separation from the main collective, but a consolidation of the groups (Tatla, 1999, p. 67). This consolidation suggests that Sikhs in the West seek to maintain their group identity and cultivate it.

In the case of the Sikh identity, it is significant to note that these two theoretical paradigms fit particularly well. Sikhs, as well as other minority groups living in America, all seem to have dual or multiple identities, such as Sikh and American in the case of this study. Determining the salience, emotion attached to, and importance of these different identities will help determine what effect 9/11 will have had on these people as it will shed light on how they perceive public policy and interpersonal interaction and thus their opinions on their identity through “reflected appraisals”, which will highlight the perceived effects of 9/11 on this group’s identity. Symbolic identity is also of particular significance to this issue because the Sikh identity is mainly maintained and created through symbols, as was noted above. Thus, symbols and how they are used by the Sikhs and by the community at large will determine how the group’s identity is perceived and how the group copes with change internally and externally. The symbolic interaction entered into by the group with society at large will shed light not only on what effect 9/11 has had on the community’s identity through an analysis of the symbols used or discarded, but also on how the group copes with those effects by an examination of the symbols and who maintains control over the definitions of a situation and the symbols used therein.

Based on the review of the literature and its salience to the issue of the Sikh community and its identity, the author proposed the following research question for investigation: How has the Sikh identity transformed in the post 9/11 period? In order to fully research this question, it can be broken down into two component questions: what effect has 9/11 had on Sikh identity? and how has the Sikh community reacted to such change?

Method
In order to answer these questions, the author conducted a qualitative study of Sikhs living in the Stockton-Lodi area of the Central Valley of California. The author employed what Blumer referred to as “exploration”. He defined “exploration” as “any ethical procedure that allows moving from a broad focus to a narrower understanding” and comprised of such methods as “observation, interviewing, listening to conversations, life histories, letters…[ studying] people well-informed about the sphere of life being studied” (see Stryker et al., 2003, p. 16). For the author’s purposes, in-depth interviews recorded orally were sufficient to gain the information required.

The best place to conduct such study is in the Gurudwara, or temple. As Tatla (1999) states, Gurudwaras are the political, social, and religious hubs for the Sikhs, where they come to socialize, reconnect, pray, and learn (p. 74). This being the case, the best place to seek information and to talk to as many people as possible, those who would be representative of the group at large, would be at the Gurudwaras.

The questions asked of the participants were: How long have you been in America? How do you define yourself as Sikh? Do you define yourself as American? Is it possible to be both a American and a Sikh? Which identity is more important, Sikh or American? Have you perceived any difference in attitude or behaviour towards Sikhs since 9/11? Have you perceived any difference in identity within the Sikh community since 9/11? Is this change one for the better or for the worse? Using these questions as a base, the author asked follow up questions in order to gain elaboration on answers given, such as “how should the Sikh community react to said effects of 9/11?”, etc. The author questioned very small sample people based upon the criteria of self-identification as a Sikh.

Results
The interviews were conducted so that the first set of questions answered the first sub-question and the second answered the second sub-question.

The first sub-question was: What effect has 9/11 had on the Sikh identity? In total, all ten people responded with the answer that it had made things worse for them as Sikhs. This was for two reasons. The first reason espoused was that the attacks had created hatred and fear towards Muslims in the minds of Americans, which has transferred from Muslims to Sikhs because of their similarities in appearances and the fact that both groups have the similar symbol of the turban. The second reason was that the attacks had increased fear and hatred towards anyone seen as ‘outsiders’ which has come to mean all immigrants, but especially immigrants who appear to be Middle Eastern in origin, whether they truly are or not. This feeling was supplemented by various anecdotes that highlighted this situation, such as one man, Secretary of the Stockton Gurudwara, who told the author that since 9/11 he had seen many instances of vandalism to the Gurudwara, most notable of which was while he was walking within the compound. One evening, several young men drove up to the Gurudwara, shouted obscenities and called for him to go back to where he came from, and then shot out all the light bulbs in the compound before driving away. Another respondent stated that she “lived in fear” because many people believe she is a Muslim and act very rudely toward her and make her feel extremely uncomfortable to the point that she does not wish to wear the karra and other signs of her faith.

The second sub-question was: How has the Sikh community reacted to this change? Eight respondents answered that they felt that the community should increase the education and information it provided to people so that Americans will know their difference between Muslims and Sikhs and will know more about the community, culture, and faith. The secretaries of the Stockton and Lodi Gurudwaras pointed to the projects they have instituted as examples of what education and opening up could look like. They have instituted weekend schools designed to teach children the language and customs of the community, they hold sermons in English on Sundays, take people interested in Sikhism on tours of the temple, and hold lectures on the religion and customs of Sikhs regularly. Two respondents stated that they were hesitant about proclaiming themselves as Sikhs because they feel that they are misunderstood and nothing they can do will change that fact. To this end they will identify themselves as Sikhs to other Sikhs or Indians but are hesitant to do so in front of ‘others’ to the point that they eschew the symbols of their faith, most obviously they cut their hair and do not wear a turban. On closer questioning they admitted that they were uncomfortable with the image that is portrayed of Sikhs, and thus their hesitancy, but they are also somewhat disturbed by their lack of attention to the symbols of their faith.

The answers garnered for the first sub-question highlight the fact there have been negative repercussions toward the Sikh community since 9/11. Firstly, the Sikh identity is the most salient identity to the people of this Sikh community because they self-identify as Sikhs before anything else. When asked about their identity as an American they uniformly stated that they did consider themselves to be American, however it was because they lived here rather than any emotional attachment. They failed to provide any other way to identify themselves as American except to mention that they watched television or kept abreast of the news. This salience gains new meaning when we consider the fact that the most salient identity is the one that is most displayed and acted upon, and this is the same identity that is most susceptible to “reflected appraisals” and “social comparisons”. These “reflected appraisals” and “social comparisons” being negative has led to the negative impact seen here upon the Sikh identity. This negative impact has had the effect of tipping the scales in the tension between identification and differentiation one way or the other as we have seen from the two respondents that chose differentiation and the eight that have chosen identification. Thus, Sikh identity has transformed not only in that it is seen as a liability by some, but also in that there is much negative feeling toward the Sikhs which has caused a shift in the internal balance between belonging and separating, which will determine the future of the group as a whole.

The answers garnered for the second sub-question lead to two different conclusions. The first conclusion is that symbols do indeed play a large role in the construction of interaction and identity. Sikhs base their identity upon the five symbols of their faith; however, these symbols are being turned and used against them by society at large. The symbol of the turban is associated more with Muslims nowadays, and Muslims are largely associated with 9/11. This transference of meaning has reached beyond simply Muslims and has become attached to Sikhs as well and their turbans. The very fact that all ten respondents have experienced this transference and have reacted to it shows that there is a struggle going on in society right now for the right to define these symbols, though who the victor will be is not yet determined. Public sentiment is juxtaposed against Sikh sentiment, and in both arenas the same symbol takes on a different meaning. This becomes more important when we know that the outcome of this struggle will not only determine the meanings ascribed to each symbol, but will also determine how the people associated with this symbol will be treated within the greater society.

The second conclusion is that the transformation of the Sikh identity into something negative has not been accepted passively. The Sikhs have reacted to all of this in two very distinct ways: proactively and reactively. The proactive approach is seen in the responses given by eight of the participants who stated that education was the way to go. Their proposed course of action for the Sikh community as a whole is one of opening up and letting people see what and who they are in order to bring about understanding and tolerance. This action is indeed proactive because inherent in this strategy is the implicit bid for dominance in the struggle to define the symbols of Sikhism. By education and opening up the Sikh community is making a stand and saying that they will not let others define them but will instead define their symbols for themselves. The second approach is a reactive approach in which instead of taking control of the definitions and the situation, the individuals decide to withdraw from the group or conceal their affiliation with the group. This approach is undertaken when the “reflected appraisals” and “social comparisons” combined with the internal tension between identification and differentiation lead to the conclusion that being in the group or affiliated with the group is disadvantageous. Therefore there are two results of the transformation of the Sikh identity, identity with and differentiation from the group.

The answer to the question of how the Sikh identity has transformed in the post 9/11 period is twofold. Firstly, there has been a negative impact on Sikh identity since 9/11 by the environment of fear, hatred, and intolerance that has grown in America since 9/11. Secondly, there has been a reaction within the Sikh community to overcome the negative impact on the Sikh community that has been experienced in the post 9/11 period in America. The answers found in the interviews were sufficient to lead to such conclusions because there was unanimous consent in the effect of 9/11 on the Sikh community. The only variation seen was in the responses dealing with how the Sikh community has dealt with this effect. The strength and feeling within the answers here were strong enough to believe, and the fact that two different strategies were outlined does not decrease the veracity of the responses, but in fact enhances it by providing a realistic scenario that rings true rather than a practiced response showing not reality, but instead a vision of what one ought to say and what ought to be true. This enhances the study and its effects because it not only answers the question presented, but provides a rich and detailed account of the Sikh community that allows for extrapolation and further study very easily.

Discussion
This study is by no means exhaustive or very broad, but it does provide a base from which more study can be done on the subject. Future study into the subject would take the conclusions reached about identity and responses from the groups and try to prove their veracity quantitatively. A quantitative study would survey a broad range of people, both Sikh and non-Sikh, and determine the magnitude of the effects on identity from both groups. Hypothesized results would be that the fear of the Sikhs is echoed across a larger population of Sikhs and that non-Sikhs do indeed view them how Sikhs perceive they view them. Another study would be to historically examine minority groups in similar situations wherein through transfer or ignorance their identity and its symbols are undergoing transformation and struggle within the social structure and determine whether the response patterns to these situations found herein establish a pattern that can be traced back. This would allow this pattern to formulized, after which study could be conducted on how and why a group chooses a particular response to face a perceived threat.

The implications of this study are twofold. The first implication is that identity, if it is indeed as important as all theorists seem to agree it is, is very fragile and is subject to many stresses and changes through society. The second implication is that the responses to identity disruptions are as important to understanding identity as the symbols and history of a group. The response of education by the Sikhs gives a positive outlook for the future. In increasing understanding, knowledge, and tolerance they not only make the world a better place for themselves, but also for those groups similarly situated. The process of education is a long and often tedious one; however, through persistence a group can not only accomplish their own goals but also set a precedent for other groups to follow and a path for other groups and individuals to tread. Through teaching tolerance and compassion to society in this way, the Sikhs make headway for other misunderstood and marginalized groups in America today. That is why this study and its results are so important. The study sheds light on a group rarely studied, bringing their story and situation to our attention, but also, in the results, show us a way to better a bad situation in a peaceful and constructive way.
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